A Retrospective of The Arctic Institute's Archive
Through its ten years of publications, The Arctic Institute has considerably expanded its purview in terms of subject matter covered and methodologies employed, while continuing to tackle important questions about security and conflict in the region. Photo: United States Department of State – Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs
The Arctic is a region experiencing rapid change and warrants a robust, multi-dimensional approach. It is a geographic space with contested1) boundaries; an ever-increasing set of actors2) vying for influence3); rapidly eroding permafrost4); rising coastlines5); potentially untapped natural resources6); a vibrant, yet oftentimes ignored history of Indigenous cultures7); and the debated jurisdictions of various legal regimes and international fora.8) It also resides at the nexus of global narratives about exploration9) and great power dynamics10), conflict11) or cooperation?12) Pick one. The region has traditionally been treated both as a battle ground for geopolitical interests and natural resources, but also a zone of international agreement. In this regard, disciplinary silos simply aren’t adequate. Therefore, institutions that handle Arctic matters have to be expansive, dexterous repositories of information, analyses, and recommendations. How has The Arctic Institute met this challenge? In honor of its ten year anniversary I took this opportunity to dive into the institution’s archives, reading the publications in the aggregate in order to get a wider perspective on the institution itself.
Expansions
Over the past ten years, The Arctic Institute has built an impressive archive of over 250 articles, the product of a global network of researchers with a wide range of expertise. Each of the articles works individually, as policy analysis and historical deep dives,13) but also operate in the aggregate, where first person narratives14) add texture to analyses on national strategies15) and evaluations of feedback loops,16) or flesh out overviews17) of the Arctic Council.18) These articles tease apart the relationships between institutions,19) governance mechanisms,20) inhabitants,21) materials,22) and the environment,23) providing a layered picture of the problems that the region faces. The most prominent development since 2015, when the currently available online publications began, has been that of expansion — of voices represented, of stakeholders included, of objects analyzed, and of methodologies employed.
Alongside these developments, most articles frame the effects of climate change.24) In explaining and responding to the conditions of a changing environment, the articles offer a dynamic view of ‘security,’ a concept that is not just concerned with traditional warfare,25) but also includes discussions of invading pathogens,26) eroding coastlines,27) and endangered languages.28) Another throughline is speculation about the possibility of conflict29) in the region and analysis on the potential and varied means of facilitating cooperation.30) A comparison of the articles and series published by The Arctic Institute in 2015 and 2021 not only shows how the interests, jurisdictions, and expertise of the think tank have expanded over the years, but also how conceptions of security have morphed and multiplied as the effects of climate change become more prominent and interest in the region grows.
2015: Fora and National Strategies
In 2015, the articles focus on a few main areas: international fora and conferences, national Arctic strategies, natural resources, and debates around potential conflict in the region. The role of the Arctic at COP2131) is explored through articles on the stakes of the conference,32) its final agreement,33) and Indigenous involvement during the climate talks.34)
The Arctic Coast Guard Forum,35) as an added layer of governance in the region, is seen as a potential means for cooperation on problems generated in large part from increased shipping, which includes search and rescue operations, environmental protection, and navigation. Higher levels of participation and a stricter review system are suggested for observers36) in the Arctic Council.
long with consideration of Germany’s37) interest in the region, it is argued that the third iteration of the E.U. ‘s policy objectives for the Arctic should include a two-tiered38) approach that is produced through separate processes and includes both a general policy and a more precise strategy. Canada’s Arctic values are evaluated in relation to the (then) new Trudeau39) administration and are arguably reflective of larger national policy agendas, while Norway’s40) shifting economic approach to its northern space is seen as a downscale of ambition. In subsequent years, The Arctic Institute will publish a body of analysis on national strategies and the interests of a variety of stakeholders, from the eight Arctic nations, to the UK and Scotland,41) Italy,42) leaders of African countries, notably those who are members in the African Union43), and China, just to name a few.44) Finally, “hype”45) around possible tension in the region is considered, with the conclusion that while outright conflict is unlikely, there is still a possibility of skirmishes, due in large part to relationships between Russia and other other states.
2015: Energy and Resources
The interconnection of natural resources, economics and the effects of climate change are explored in relation to the activities of another Arctic state, the U.S. The new tenure of the U.S. Chairmanship of the Arctic Council46) is viewed optimistically as an opportunity to redefine Arctic investment, shifting the focus from economic growth to human development. This issue is explored in an argument for a shift in thinking about Alaska47) in terms of resource extraction to efforts that create partnerships focused on renewable energy in remote communities. Oil companies48) are called upon to play a role in mitigating climate change through cooperation with other stakeholders in the region, especially through data sharing.
2021: Indigenous Rights, Languages, and Sustainable Development
By 2021, the scope of The Arctic Institute’s articles has grown exponentially, especially in the realm of Indigenous rights 49) and languages50), while coverage of international dialogue and national strategies have remained central. The state of Indigenous languages, particularly in the Canadian context, is explored with the contention that language policy51) can be improved through more explicit connections between language, community, and identity, which in turn facilitate a sustainable and diverse society.52) Geoengineering and, more broadly, climate change mitigation strategies, are evaluated in the context of inclusivity and consent, and explored through Sami opposition to the SCoPEX53) program, with the argument that there needs to be more comprehensive standards and transparency in decision-making processes.
2021: National Strategies and Sustainable Development
Analyses of national Arctic strategies have increased in terms of both Arctic nations and observer states within the Arctic Council. Sweden’s strategic thinking54) about the region has become more sophisticated, while it is argued that Norway, in the wake of increased regional and global tensions, should have a policy of deterrence,55) while also partaking in dialogue and cooperation with Russia on regional issues. Reflecting debates about the organization of Arctic space around state-centered sovereignty versus a shared common interest is the argument that for India56) to maintain momentum in its engagement with the region it needs a more precise approach and should appoint a designated Arctic representative. In another article, the concept of sustainable development57) is questioned due to its ambiguity, allowing actors to operate within their own conceptions of the term and without coordination. To mitigate this, more specific rules and standards around climate action need to be integrated into Arctic development projects.
2021: Conflict and Cooperation
Conflict and cooperation continue to be overarching themes. In discussing China’s role in the region, scientific cooperation58) is understood as an important stabilizer to relationships, that the maintenance of a transnational network of experts can be a key component of diplomacy. Relatedly, disaster diplomacy59) offers opportunities for cooperation in relation to Svalbard. However, while these means have been utilized by its inhabitants, they have not yet influenced the approaches of national governments. In terms of fisheries management,60) a comprehensive Arctic-specific legal regime is lacking and the Arctic Council is the only organization working on a global level with regards to these issues. The existing system, it is argued, can be bolstered through cooperation and coordination.
While past articles61) have argued against this,62) a military security dialogue is suggested63) as a means to approach the shifting regional security environment and minimize the potential for conflict by supporting transparency in communications between states and stakeholders and lessening the risk of miscalculation. New shipping lanes and refurbished ports64) are seen as potentially bringing increased competition and other geopolitical concerns to the region, namely in the realms of sovereignty questions, transnational crime, and the relationship between China and Russia.
Conflict is explicitly approached in a new series that looks at historical moments of tension65) in Arctic space and demonstrates how lessons from these case studies can help to bypass purely speculative or theoretical approaches to the region, as well as inform policy in relation to current militarization and peace building effort. The strategic role of Greenland66) during World War II demonstrates the importance of increased domain awareness and defense capability in the region today, while disputes around fisheries67) are predicted to be a main source of tension in the future, as they have been in the past. The history of science cooperation68) between the U.S. and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, especially in relation to protection of the environment, is seen as a means to manage relations in a positive way today.
Series: China and the Arctic
Illustrative of the multidisciplinarity of approaches in The Arctic Institute’s publications are the series of articles that have been produced. The specter of conflict, to varying degrees, is explored in a series69) on the geopolitics of China,70) particularly its relationships with Arctic states,71) how it is constructing its Arctic identity, its interests and activities in the region, and how other states should deal with it,72) particularly the U.S. The series includes viewpoints on U.S. defense allocations,73) the reception of the application of the Polar Code74) on shipping ambitions, and the importance of advocating for the reduction of black carbon emissions in China.75) This is a variation of earlier and narrower clusters of articles on other national Arctic strategies, namely Sweden76) and Russia.77)
Series: Northern Perspectives
Another subset of the series deals with human security and culture, looking specifically at the experiences of Indigenous peoples and women. In partnership with the Gordon Foundation, policy critiques and recommendations for the Canadian Arctic were written by the Jane Glassco Northern Fellows and focused predominantly on the experiences of Indigenous communities, especially regarding education and the management of resources.78) A central argument of the articles is that climate change, in large part, is a result of a lack of reciprocal and accountable relationship between humans and the environment and that there is a disparity in worldviews79) between climate scientists and Indigenous peoples. Recommendations in relation to education include the inclusion of land claim agreements in curricula,80) more culturally relevant material in addictions programming,81) on-land learning for students,82) and an approach to policy that integrates language, community and legend.83) In a similar vein is an analysis of two treaties between Dehcho Dene and the Crown,84) negotiating context and summary of positions, and recommendations for parties to advance their respective interests.
Series: COVID and Permafrost
The two newest series are The Arctic Institute’s most expansive and multidimensional. Analysis on the COVID-19 pandemic and the Arctic85) runs a gamut of angles, ranging from how the Canadian Coast Guard86) is responding to the crisis to how the conditions revealed the need for greater transparency87) in labor conditions in the region, while the lack of adjustment in domestic policies is criticized.88) An evaluation of recovery strategies89) in the Nordic countries is considered alongside the halting of scientific research90) in the area and the deleterious impacts on indigenous communities.91) The causes and effects of permafrost degradation92) are approached from a variety of angles, including its effects on the natural and built environments93) to the necessity for an international monitoring system.94) The series employs methodologies that analyze a breadth of material, from individual financial95) costs of the changing landscape to personal narratives96) about how to educate wider audiences on the issues and agent-based modelling.97)
Conclusion
This is not to say that The Arctic Institute’s publications have been exhaustive, there are many more topics that can and should be covered. For example, as demonstrated in articles in the permafrost series,98) the realm of hard and soft infrastructure, from highways and airfields to broadband and networks of care, is a fruitful area of inquiry to be explored further. But in a general sense, the distinguishing characteristic of The Arctic Institute has been its ability to evolve, reflecting the region it covers. And the need for interdisciplinarity isn’t going away anytime soon.
As the debate around Arctic space has flourished, so has the concept of ‘security,’ evolving from traditional questions of conflict and cooperation to include issues such as broadband access and eroding permafrost. Power dynamics have remained central but are embedded within an expanded field of concerns – from language revitalization to technology transfer. The region’s stakeholders continue to multiply and its boundaries remain contested, both of which ensure its global relevance, while also bringing to the fore a number of important issues, ranging from jurisdictions over natural resources to the buildup of troops and military posts. But despite this dynamic set of concerns and angles, the key question remains: will the Arctic be defined by cooperation or conflict? While this contention will be debated for many years to come, The Arctic Institute, in its ten years of publications, has demonstrated there is certainly cooperation in Arctic discourse.
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