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Environmental Policy Integration with the Existing Arctic Strategies

Metal scrap on Wrangel Island, an island of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug in the Russian Arctic. Ekaterina Uryupova

Due to climate change and high political interest, the importance of the Arctic region is growing. The Arctic has become a matter of higher political interest, not only with a focus on resource development for Arctic states but also the non-Arctic countries. The economic opportunities arising from an increasingly ice-free region and prevention of environmental degradation are on the opposite sides for the countries involved in activities in the North. Nowadays the Arctic is viewed as the accelerating region for climate change and its consequences for the Earth system. The eight Arctic states represent one-fifth of global emissions,¹⁾WWF (2021). Retrieved on 1st August, 2021 from https://www.arcticwwf.org/newsroom/features/arctic-countries-need-to-lead-the-cut-of-co2/ thus their governments need to take an interest in ways in which the policy process on reducing emissions, especially the implementation phase of it (a series of activities undertaken by governments to achieve the objectives articulated in specific laws and policies), can be strengthened and supported.

How have different countries positioned themselves towards integrated environmental concerns with their Arctic policies? In view of a possible future acceleration of global warming, the Arctic states and non-Arctic countries (for instance, China and India) and the EU as an independent entity, have taken environmental concerns into account in their current Arctic policy documents and activities. What are the environmental priorities delineated in the national Arctic strategies?

Over the past few decades, our planet has changed a lot. We can witness how the Arctic is transforming into a warmer, wetter, and less predictable destination. And nowadays we hear more voices addressing the needs of the nations to mitigate and adapt to climate change in the Arctic and protect its fragile environment. These efforts are reflected in national policies for the Arctic with focus on greenhouse gas emissions, climate pollutants (including methane, black carbon, etc.), research, adaptation and mitigation, and international cooperation.

The national Arctic strategies share similarities regarding topics and issues, however they still represent different political visions. Sustainable resource management and environmental protection in the Arctic are mentioned in emerging Arctic policies. With Indigenous populations’ resistance, awareness has been elevated by the uniqueness of nature, remoteness and pristine wilderness of the Arctic. Honestly, varying degrees of the importance of environmental protection in the region is reflected in the national strategies of different countries. Hereby, they are positioning themselves in view of a possible future acceleration of the ‘attention’ to an increasingly ice-free Arctic.

Canada

Being a northern nation and having representatives of Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities living well above the Arctic Circle, Canada still has some gaps in its Arctic policy framework. The Pan-Territorial Vision for Sustainable Development,²⁾Department of Executive and Intergovernmental Affairs, Canada (2017). Retrieved on 11 July, 2021 from https://www.gov.nu.ca/executive-and-intergovernmental-affairs/information/arctic-and-northern-policy-framework-pan released by the Northwest Territories, Yukon and Canada’s eastern Arctic territory of Nunavut in August 2017, played an important role for resource development, economic diversification, improved infrastructure and innovation in building strong territorial economies in the region. The 2019 launch of Canada’s Arctic and Northern Policy Framework (ANPF)³⁾Canada’s Arctic and Northern Policy Framework (2019). Government of Canada. Retrieved on 02 September, 2021 from https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1560523306861/1560523330587 seemed to be a significant shift from the previous basic vision of the region towards a complex approach with contribution provided by the federal government, Indigenous peoples, Inuit, First Nations and Métis, 6 territorial and provincial governments (Yukon, Nunavut, Quebec, Northwest Territories, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Manitoba). A new framework is to provide overarching direction to the Government of Canada’s priorities, activities and investments in the Arctic, with a horizon of 2030. A cooperative form of policy making suggests the following priorities in the region: support science, knowledge and research that is meaningful for communities and for decision-making, face the effects of climate change and support healthy ecosystems in the Arctic and North.

Strength: Indigenous peoples are involved in a cooperative form of policy making, priority is given to theArctic science. The lack of sufficient air and maritime port facilities limits the size and duration of military operations in the Canadian North – this is definitely less stressful for the environment.

Weakness: The federal government is having a poor track record of environmental monitoring, i.e. slashing the budget for environmental monitoring in the oil sands in the North.⁴⁾Desmarais A. (2020). Indigenous leaders ‘losing faith’ in environmental protection amid oil sands monitoring budget cuts. CBC News from 05th August 2020. Retrieved on 4th September, 2021 from https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/alberta-nwt-chiefs-losing-faith-environment-monitoring-1.5674446

Russia

The 2020 Russia’s “strategy for the development of the Arctic Zone”⁵⁾Executive order No. 645, the Russian Federation from 26th October, 2020 (2020). A Strategy of development of the Arctic Zone of the Russian Federation and a national security plan through 2035. Retrieved on 1st September, 2021 from http://kremlin.ru/acts/bank/45972/page/2 puts economic development regarding transportation and extractive industries at its core, however attaching larger importance to the environment than it had in its previous policy document. The new white paper will cover a period of 15 years, through 2035. It includes the following approaches: development and implementation of the governmental program to support traditional Indigenous knowledge, further geological and oceanographic research exploration of the Arctic zone, extended support to the fisheries sector, reforestation and wild fire prevention, development of the complex plan for international scientific activities and climate change research, achievement of long-term conservation of nature (protected areas), climate change mitigation projects, development of a framework for the design of ecological monitoring and effective waste management, and others. In comparison to the previous Russian Arctic strategies, the recent policy document emerges as a profoundly changed development plan for the region. In March 2021, Russia’s government approved an additional state program on social-economic development of the Arctic zone through 2024, and its objectives include a support of traditional knowledge of Indigenous peoples in the North and protection of the environment of territories inhabited by Indigenous groups.⁶⁾Executive order No. 484, the Russian Federation from 30th March 2021 (2021). An approval of the state programme on social-economic development of the Arctic zone of the Russian Federation”. Retrieved on 6th July, 2021 from https://portnews.ru/upload/basefiles/2426_pGpochsppchrpopgchrpapmpmpa%20chrpapzpvpichtpichja%20pAchrpkchtpipkpi.pdf Additionally, Russia will seek to become carbon neutral by 2060, as the country might finally take steps to start moving its economy away from fossil fuels.⁷⁾Fedorinova Yu. (2021). Putin says Russia will target carbon neutrality by 2060. Bloomberg, 13th October 2021. Retrieved on 13th October, 2021 from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-10-13/putin-says-russia-will-target-carbon-neutrality-by-2060

Strength: Major focus on the Arctic region in general country’s development plans, massive investments to the region, restructuring of the fisheries sector, installation of satellite monitoring of the Arctic region.

Weakness: Priority given to industries and the military rather than to the needs of the Arctic population and local issues, for instance, there is still a lot of unattended scrap metal, which remains in the Russian Arctic zone.⁸⁾Stambler M. (2021). Polar clean ups: fighting pollution in the Russian Arctic. Russia Beyond from March 10, 2021. Retrieved on 28th August, 2021 from https://www.rbth.com/science-and-tech/333504-polar-arctic-clean-ups-pollution

Norway

The Norwegian Government’s Arctic Policy⁹⁾Meld. St. 9, 2020–2021 (2020). Retrieved on 30th August, 2021 from https://www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumenter/meld.-st.-9-20202021/id2787429/ is focused on national security, stability and international cooperation. When it comes to climate change and the environment in the Arctic, Norway recalls the Paris Agreement: reduced rates of greenhouse gas emissions seem to be a focal point of this policy document. For example, Norway targets to decrease greenhouse gas emissions by at least 50 % by 2030. The achievement of this target is possible in cooperation with the EU. Another goal for Norway is to become a low-emission society by 2050, with overall gas emissions reduced by 90-95%. Norway has already implemented a number of measures to reduce its own black carbon emissions, but the country is actively working with other Arctic states on this issue. Also, the new Arctic policy document is focused on oceans, dramatic change of biodiversity, and pollution in the Arctic. Development of a framework for integrated environmental management plans for Norway is included in this new approach.

Strength: Oslo’s approach to conserving its Arctic areas can be easily named as the greenest one in Europe.

Weakness: There are several gaps in the environmental regime relevant for mining, such as the reliance on local authorities, unclear division of competence between authorities, and the devolution of power to public authorities without clear duties. Also, Norway opens the Arctic to more oil drilling and announces Arctic licensing awards.¹⁰⁾Adomaitis N. (2020). Norway’s supreme court verdict opens the Arctic to more oil drilling. Reuters from December 22, 2020. Retrieved on 6th September, 2021 from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-norway-oil-environment-idUSKBN28W104

Sweden

An updated strategy for the Arctic region, “Strategi för den arktiska regionen” was released by the Swedish Government in September 2020.¹¹⁾Sweden’s strategy for the Arctic region (2020). Retrieved on 7th July, 2021 from https://www.government.se/international-development-cooperation-strategies/2011/10/swedens-strategy-for-the-arctic-region/ Climate and the environment, polar research and environmental protection, sustainable economic development are among the priorities for the government plans. Here, Arctic research is explicitly discussed, and thus tied, with environmental protection, and biodiversity is highlighted in their updated policy document. Among the country’s top priorities are international cooperation and security issues. Similar to the previous document (2011), Stockholm’s Arctic strategy still pays a lot of attention to the impacts of climate change in the region, but the environmental issues are not the only focus.

Strength: Strong support of the Indigenous peoples’ culture and traditions, extensive work within the European Union to implement measures to substantially reduce global emissions of greenhouse gases.

Weakness: The available environmental observation system in Sweden is only weakly linked to the monitoring of strategic initiative effects due to analytical, organizational and institutional barriers.¹²⁾Balfors B. & Schmidtbauer J. (2002). Swedish Guidelines for Strategic Environmental Assessment for EU Structural Funds. European Environment. 12. 35 – 48. 10.1002/eet.274; Bodin Ö., García M.M.,1 & Robins G. (2020). Reconciling Conflict and Cooperation in Environmental Governance: A Social Network Perspective. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 2020 45:1, 471-495. Retrieved on 6th September, 2021 from https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-environ-011020-064352 The existing Arctic strategy is attaching a high level of strategic importance to Sweden’s Arctic region, and paying more attention to national security rather than mitigating the negative effects of climate change.

Finland

Finland’s strategy for the Arctic region was adopted as a Government Resolution on 17 June, 2021.¹³⁾The Government of Finland (2021). Finland’s Strategy for Arctic Policy. Retrieved on 20th June, 2021 from https://julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi/handle/10024/163247 It extends until 2030. According to the released document, all activities in the Arctic must be based on the carrying capacity of the natural environment, the protection of the climate, sustainable development principles and respect for the rights of indigenous populations. The focus of the new strategy is on climate change, mitigation and adaptation. The use of new fossil reserves is considered to be incompatible with the country’s environmental objectives, and pretty risky not only for Finland, but for the global community. To strengthen the environmental policy action in Finland, a new Climate Policy Round Table has also been convened. The work on a Roadmap for Fossil-free Transport was completed in autumn 2020, and sector-specific roadmaps for low carbon emissions were published in summer 2020.

Strength: Special attention to climate change mitigation and adaptation, environmental cooperation and respect for the interests of indigenous populations.

Weakness: Although the Arctic whitepaper contemplates sustainable mining by means of new technologies and digitalisation, mining remains one of the most conflicting issues in Finland. Both the value of the industry for the country and the weak enforcement of the law have raised public concerns about environmental problems in the region.¹⁴⁾Salonen S.-M. (2021). Inari municipality is hoping for a stronger control over mining questions after 3,000 sq kilometres reserved by Swedish companies. The Barents Observer, August 23, 2021. Retrieved on 10th September, 2021 from https://thebarentsobserver.com/en/arctic-mining/2021/08/inari-municipality-hoping-stronger-control-over-mining-questions-after-3000-sq; Poelzer, G., Linde, S., Jagers, S.C., Matti S. (2021). Digging in the dark: reviewing international literature to address impending policy challenges for Swedish and Finnish mining. Mineral Economics 34, 225–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13563-021-00255-6

Iceland

The international policy of Iceland is supported by two key documents – the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the principle of sustainable development, released at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Additionally, Iceland is the only Arctic State that does not have an Indigenous population. Its Arctic territory is limited to Grimsey Island in the north, but the country has become embedded in global institutions focused on the Arctic issues. Iceland’s policy in the Arctic issues is anchored in a parliamentary resolution which outlines priority areas, among them climate change, sustainable use of natural resources, and the rights of Indigenous peoples (collaboration with Greenland). The concept of a sustainable Arctic was a pillar of Iceland’s Chairmanship in the Arctic Council in 2019-2021, along with protection of the north polar marine environment, supporting the Arctic research, and green energy alternatives. 

Strength: Iceland is very conscious about its position in the Arctic and uses its geographical position to promote itself as an Arctic coastal state, also in the area of environmental policy.

Weakness: The country has strong interest in fisheries, and Iceland has been involved in a number of fisheries disputes – quota ‘wars” resulted in failure to reach agreement on marine resource management in the region.¹⁵⁾Østhagen A. Fisheries disputes: The real potential for Arctic conflict. The Arctic Institute, June 3, 2021. Retrieved on 5th July, 2021 from https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/fisheries-disputes-real-potential-arctic-conflict/

United States of America

Both the American Ministry of Defense and the American Coast Guard launched their Arctic strategies in 2019, followed by their own document released by the American Air Force and the American Navy in 2020. Surely, in all the policy documents the focus is on U.S. interests and national security. A rapidly melting Arctic is seen as an arena of confrontation, thus the region is discussed as a place imposing specific requirements for operating and sustaining force capabilities in the region. The Trump administration advanced a rollback of environmental regulations in favor of fossil fuel producers in Alaska. However, recently some strides have been made toward a climate action – the United States has become a member of the Coalition of Finance Ministers for Climate Action, which discusses climate and economic policy priorities in the Arctic are discussed.¹⁶⁾The Ministry of Finance, Finland. Press release (2021). Meeting of the Climate Action Coalition chaired by Minister of Finance Vanhanen as cooperation was joined by the United States, Japan and South Korea. Retrieved on 8th July, 2021 from https://vm.fi/en/-/meeting-of-climate-action-coalition-chaired-by-minister-of-finance-vanhanen-as-cooperation-was-joined-by-united-states-japan-and-south-korea In Executive Order on Protecting Public Health and the Environment and Restoring Science to Tackle the Climate Crisis, Section 4, of January 20, 2021 particular emphasis is on the Arctic Refuge – this document places a temporary moratorium on all activities of the Federal Government relating to the implementation of the Coastal Plain Oil and Gas Leasing Program.¹⁷⁾Executive Order on Protecting Public Health and the Environment and Restoring Science to Tackle the Climate Crisis (2021). Presidential actions. January 20, 2021. Retrieved on 01 September, 2021 from https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/01/20/executive-order-protecting-public-health-and-environment-and-restoring-science-to-tackle-climate-crisis/

Strength: New government plans to fight climate change incorporating environmental concerns into a wide range of policies.

Weakness: Still vague environmental standards to protect fish, game, wildlife, water, and habitats in Alaska.¹⁸⁾Alaska’s environmental standards aren’t stringent. Juneau Empire, 23rd June, 2020. Retrieved on 12th September, 2021 from https://www.juneauempire.com/opinion/alaskas-environmental-standards-arent-stringent/; Sohns A., Ford J.D., Adamovski J., Robinson B.E. (2021). Participatory Modeling of Water Vulnerability in Remote Alaskan Households Using Causal Loop Diagrams. Environmental Management 67, 26–42 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-020-01387-1

European Union (as an indepentend entity)

The 2016 EU policy¹⁹⁾The EU Arctic Policy from 26th April, 2016 (2016). Retrieved on 7th July, 2021 from https://eeas.europa.eu/arctic-policy/eu-arctic-policy_en for the Arctic included three main objectives with focus on sustainable development to a wide extent and international cooperation between the states, Indigenous communities and other parties. According to the 2021 strategy²⁰⁾European Commision (2021). A stronger EU engagement for a greener, peaceful, and prosperous Arctic. Retrieved on 14th October, 2021 from https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_21_5214, the EU will seek a ban on exploiting new fossil fuel deposits in the Arctic to protect a region severely affected by climate change. Here is also a reference to the Svalbard Treaty and its interpretation with the EU’s exclusive competence for conservation of marine biological resources. The European Green Deal (since 2019)²¹⁾European Commision (2019). A European Green Deal. Retrieved on 14th October, 2021 from https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal_en and the Horizon Europe Programme (2021-2027)²²⁾European Commision (2021). Horizon Europe. Retrieved on 14th October, 2021 from https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/funding/funding-opportunities/funding-programmes-and-open-calls/horizon-europe_en are supposed to help tackle climate change and overcome environmental challenges by using innovative green, blue, and digital technologies.

Strength: The policy document is focused on nature conservation and local climate adaptation, also a broader climate policy and the regulation of the EU’s energy market – basically, the EU will act in view of climate change, raw materials as well as geostrategic influence.

Weakness: The 2021 EU Arctic policy document encompasses too many issues, sectors and stakeholders. The ban on tapping new oil, coal and gas deposits should prevent possible tensions over resources, but it has already drawn a disfavour from oil and gas producers as Norway.²³⁾Brzozovski A. Norway’s new government unimpressed with EU’s Arctic drilling pledge. Retrieved on 14th October, 2021 from https://www.euractiv.com/section/politics/short_news/norways-new-government-unimpressed-with-eus-arctic-drilling-pledge/

China (as a non-Arctic state)

Beijing is showing greater interest in the region, and the northern states are targets of intensifying the ‘red’ economic power. President Xi Jinping’s Belt and Road Initiative includes the Arctic region in the state campaign aimed at increasing trading opportunities. Also, the State Council Information Office of China released its Arctic white paper China’s Arctic Policy on January 26th, 2018.²⁴⁾China’s Arctic Policy (2018). Retrieved on 28th August, 2021 from https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/white_paper/2018/01/26/content_281476026660336.htm The white paper states that China is committed to the multilateral institutional arrangements for Arctic governance currently in place and to the existing legal framework, including the United Nations Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), treaties on climate change and the environment. China’s participation in Arctic liquified natural gas (LNG) projects is a part of its effort to replace coal and oil with natural gas, a less environmentally harmful fossil fuel. However, the focus in the policy document is clearly set on the exploitation of the Arctic’s natural resources rather than on environmental protection.

Strength: Arctic scientific research and environment protection are placed in an important position.

Weakness: The current China’s framework for the Arctic is driven by their desire to protect the unique environment of the North but conflicted with the economically focused concepts.

Denmark

The Kingdom of Denmark’s current Strategy for the Arctic expired at the end of 2020. Work on a new strategy has been significantly slowed down by the covid pandemic, and Greenland intends to work on its own Arctic whitepaper.²⁵⁾Quinn E. (2021). Greenland’s more prominent role on the Arctic Council is an important signal to the international community. Eye on the Arctic, June 18, 2021. Retrieved on 12th September, 2021 from https://www.rcinet.ca/eye-on-the-arctic/2021/06/18/greenlands-more-prominent-role-on-arctic-council-important-signal-to-intl-community-says-foreign-minister/

Are there ways to improve?

Tackling the climate crisis and national security goals are important for every single country. However, not that much has been said publicly about the friction between environmental parts of the policy documents and national security prospects – here is the conflict of interests! When it comes to militarization of the region (regardless of nation), environmental goals immediately recede to the background: and this is one of the reasons why military exercises are increasing in the High North.²⁶⁾Depledge, D. (2020). Train Where You Expect to Fight: Why Military Exercises Have Increased in the High North. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 3(1), pp. 288–301. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.64; Shouker P. (2020). Russia’s Strategy of Reconquering the Arctic. The National Interest, May 8, 2020. Retrieved on 5th August, 2021 from https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/russia%E2%80%99s-strategy-reconquering-arctic-152681; Hurt M. (2021). Growing military activity in the Arctic and Baltic regions. International Centre for Defence and Security, April 8, 2021. Retrieved on 9th September, 2021 from https://icds.ee/en/growing-military-activity-in-the-arctic-and-baltic-regions/ In so doing, nations directly increase pressure on the environment through carbon emissions, military installations, all types of pollution, the interference with environmental research activities, etc.

What are the policy implications for the future? The huge pressure is on policymakers who will focus on the existing discord between environmental and security components within the Arctic strategies. All parties fail to cooperate effectively at international level, as soon as they are paying a regard to political will and tensions. Also, there is a lack of dynamism in environmental law, and the flexibility of decision making at national levels. For effective mitigation of climate change it requires a flexible legal framework that works effectively in a rapidly changing Arctic.