From the United Nations to the Arctic: Celebrating Indigenous Languages

Nuuk, Greenland, capital of Indigenous languages in the Arctic in Fall 2016. Photo: Romain Chuffart

Languages play a crucial role in both social and cultural development. They are intimately linked to people’s own sense of identity, to their lands, and to their environments. In line with the United Nations’ 2019 International Year of Indigenous Languages, The Arctic Institute’s Indigenous Languages in the Arctic celebrates the linguistic and cultural diversity of Indigenous languages across the North. In a series of articles, commentaries, and op-eds, the contributing authors seek to raise awareness about the challenges and opportunities facing Indigenous languages and to highlight the immense value of linguistic diversity across the Circumpolar North.

The Arctic Institute Indigenous Languages Series 2019

• From the United Nations to the Arctic: Celebrating Indigenous Languages
• Language Revitalization, Cultural Stabilization, and Eskaleut Languages
• Learning the Unexpected

Protecting Indigenous languages is important, not only because it allows communities to maintain their traditions and livelihoods, but because languages are intimately tied up with questions of identity, tradition, cultural history, and memory. Perhaps most importantly, they allow knowledge to be passed on from one generation to the next.

In Resolution A/RES/71/178 adopted on 19th December 2016, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed that 2019 would be the Year of Indigenous Languages. The goal of this endeavour is to raise awareness of how Indigenous languages are threatened, how many have already been lost, and to highlight the urgent need to preserve, revitalize, and promote Indigenous languages. From language revitalization and cultural stabilization to personal stories about learning Indigenous languages and understanding new cultures, those languages offer different avenues for understanding the Arctic through the eyes of its peoples—something we aim to explore through this series.

From Assimilation to Revitalization

Many Indigenous peoples have had to fight to preserve their language from extinction. Arctic Indigenous language speakers “have experienced numerous effects of modernization and global forces, including mandatory schooling, forced settlement, and the introduction of governance structures, among other forms of institutionalization”.¹⁾D. Patrick (2018). Arctic Languages in Canada in the Age of Globalization. The Palgrave Handbook of Minority Languages and Communities. London: Palgrave: 257–284 This has often led to profound social and linguistic changes in many Northern Indigenous communities. In recent decades, however, things have begun to change. The legacy of colonial policies of linguistic assimilation and uniformization remains, yes, but increasingly new and innovative approaches are being implemented to help in language conservation and revitalization.

Each individual Arctic state has its own approach to the use of Indigenous languages within the public sphere. From Nunavut and its ongoing efforts to build an education system that reflects Inuit language, culture, and practices, to the use of Indigenous languages by numerically small peoples in Russia, this series will aim to both provide insight into contemporary policies across the Arctic, but also explore how—and to what extent— linguistic policies could be improved taking into account regional specifics. As language and culture are often construed as two sides of the same coin, Indigenous languages help us understand the different realities experienced by peoples living in the European, Russian, and North American Arctic(s). Such an approach helps highlighting the common challenges faced by Indigenous and minority communities across the region, while remembering and celebrating the significant diversity found across the Circumpolar North. It is clear that there is no one-size-fits-all solution. Gathering best practices and learning from different regional experiences could nonetheless help communities navigate the challenges and opportunities they face.

Arctic Linguistic Diversity

Due to a long history of imperialism and colonialism across the Circumpolar North, the dominant languages in the Arctic tend to be those spoken by settlers: Russian, English, Finnish, and the Scandinavian languages. But, from Utqiagvik, Alaska, to Qaanaaq, Greenland, to the Chukchi Peninsula in North East Russia, there are more than 40 Indigenous languages spoken across the Arctic.²⁾All the states who have a seat at the Arctic Council are home to Indigenous communities except Iceland In many jurisdictions, the idea of officializing or co-officializing Indigenous languages has been regarded as one way to promote and revitalize indigenous languages. However, granting official status can be meaningless if this status is not matched with practical linguistic accommodations such as having public servants who can actually speak Indigenous languages.³⁾R. Chuffart (2018). Speaking of Rights: Indigenous Linguistic Rights in the Arctic In G. Alfredsson and T. Koivurova (eds.). The Yearbook of Polar Law Volume 9, 2017. Leiden and London: Brill Nijhoff: 3-23 What does this mean in practice for Indigenous populations? Here is an overview of the relevant languages legislations in seven Arctic States to prime you for the coming series.

Norway

Up until today, the approach taken by the Norwegian government in matters touching on Sámi language rights has been to confine these rights to specific administrative areas. Under the 1998 Education Act, Northern, Southern, and Lule Sámi can be taught at primary and lower-secondary education levels in the Sámi administrative area.⁴⁾According to section 3-1 of the 1987 Sámi Act , the term “Sami language administrative district” means the municipalities of Karasjok, Kautokeino, Nesseby, Porsanger, Tana, and Kåfjord. In terms of education in Sámi outside the administrative area, there does not appear to be any comprehensive language policy. Pursuant to the 1987 Sámi Act, Sámi speakers also have the right to use their language in any court proceedings in three district courts whose jurisdictions cover the Sámi district—the Inner Finnmark District Court, the Ofoten District Court, and the Inntrøndelag District Court. Moreover, pursuant to its obligations under article 22 of the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169), the Norwegian government closely monitors the rights of Sámi speakers to use their native languages in dealing with authorities.

Sweden

In Sweden, Sámi languages have been given minority language status following Sweden’s ratification of the European Charter for Regional and Minority Languages. In practice, this gives Sámi speakers the right to access services in Sámi. This legislative change came about when Sweden ratified the Framework Convention, which was at the same time as it ratified the European Charter for Regional and Minority Languages. That being said, similar to Norway, Sweden has confined these rights to a specific area, which comprises the municipalities of Arjeplog, Jokkmokk, Gällivare, Kiruna, Arvidsjaur, Berg, Härjedalen, Lycksele, Malå, Sorsele, Storuman, Strömsund, Umeå, Vilhelmina, Åre, Älvdalen, and Östersund, where Sámi languages are most frequently spoken.

Finland

According to the 2003 Sámi Language Act, Finland has a duty to promote and accommodate Sámi linguistic rights. The 2003 Act protects the constitutional right of the Sámi to maintain and develop their own language and culture. Like in Norway and in Sweden, these rights are confined to a specific area: the Sámi Homeland.⁵⁾Section 4 of the Act on the Sámi Parliament defines the Sámi Homeland as the areas of the municipalities of Enontekiö, Inari, and Utsjoki, as well as the area of the reindeer owners’ association of Lapland in Sodankylä. In this area, Sámi children have the right to be educated in their own languages. Sámi can also be used in court proceedings and in dealing with the local authorities. Sámi people have also gained linguistic and cultural autonomy through the 1995 Sámi Parliament Act, which imposes a duty on the Finnish parliament to financially support efforts by the Finnish Sámi Parliament to implement policies that promote and preserve Sámi languages.

Russia

The situation is more complex when it comes to Indigenous communities living in Russia as there are over 40 Northern Indigenous groups, including Sámi and ‘Eskimosy’ (Inuit/Yuit), the Nentsy, Khanty, Mansi, Selkup, Evenki, Even, Dolgan, Yukaghir, Chukchi, Aleut, Itelmen, and numerous others. Here the legal definitions of who is Indigenous and who is not is important. To be legally recognized as Indigenous, Indigenous peoples must fall into the “Indigenous numerically small peoples of the North” and the criteria include 1) living in the regions of the North, Siberia, and the Far East on the territory of traditional occupancy of their ancestors, 2) maintaining traditional ways of life, economy, and trades, 3) numbering less than 50,000 people, and 4) considering themselves distinct ethnic communities.⁶⁾G. Fondahl, V. Filippova, and L. Mack (2015): Indigenous Peoples in the New Arctic In B. Evengård, J. Nymand Larsen and Ø. Paasch (eds.) The New Arctic. Cham: Springer: 10 For example, Sámi people living on the Kola peninsula are recognized as “Indigenous numerically-small people” and can use Sámi in interactions with local authorities. In contrast, Komi people do not meet the legal threshold to be recognized as “Indigenous numerically-small people” (due to the population size of their people, which is larger than 50,000) and are thus not able to exercise rights reserved to indigenous peoples such as linguistic rights. Under Law No. 273-FZ, education in minority languages is principally allowed, but not at the expense of studying the Russian language.

Northern Canada

In Canada, the federal government recently introduced Bill C-91, the Indigenous Languages Act, which has been received with mixed reactions and is regarded as “colonial” by some Indigenous groups. Canada’s northern territories have passed additional laws to help and accommodate Indigenous language speakers. The Northwest Territories’ approach to Indigenous language rights has been to grant official status to nine Indigenous languages—alongside English and French—through the enactment of the 1988 Official Language Act. This equality of status has allowed the nine languages (Chipewyan, Cree, Gwich’in, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, Inuvialuktun, North Slavey, South Slavey, and Tłı̨chǫ) to be used in all government institutions. However, due to practical circumstances (notably the lack of public officials able to speak many of these languages), English and French still have a considerable edge over the other official languages.

By contrast, in the Yukon, the 2002 Yukon Language Act only recognises English and French as the official languages of the territory but does allow anyone to speak in the Legislative Assembly in any of the languages spoken by the territory’s First Nations. Furthermore, Yukon First Nations enjoy special rights that have been devolved to them through several self government agreements pursuant to the 1994 Yukon First Nations Self-Government Act. These rights include the power to legislate on matters related to service in First Nations languages, which has allowed some First Nations to enact their own language act.

Since its creation in 1999, Nunavut has been gradually consolidating its language legislation by enacting several key statuses: the 2008 Official Languages Act (OLA), Education Act, and the Inuit Language Protection Act. The Official Languages Act’s preamble recalls that, under Article 32 of the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement, there is an obligation for territorial institutions to design and deliver programs and services that are responsive to the linguistic goals and objectives of Inuit. OLA granted Inuktitut the same official status as French and English, while both the Education Act and the Inuit Language Protection Act aim to promote and protect the Inuit Language within Nunavut.

Alaska

English is still the most spoken language in Alaska and it is the one that is primarily used for education purposes as well. United States Federal legislation, such as the Native American Languages Act, has managed to implement financial schemes to support education in Indigenous languages. Furthermore, in 2014 Alaska passed a law (“English+20”) recognising twenty Indigenous languages as official state languages.⁷⁾The 20 languages are Inupiaq, Siberian Yupik, Central Alaskan Yup’ik, Alutiiq, Unangax, Dena’ina, Deg Xinag, Holikachuk, Koyukon, Upper Kuskokwim, Gwich’in, Tanana, Upper Tanana, Tanacross, Hän, Ahtna, Eyak, Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian The value of this official recognition is questionable given that it does not impose any obligation on the Alaskan government to use these languages within the public sphere.

Greenland

The 2009 Self-Government Act states that Greenlandic is the official language of Greenland and the 2010 Inatsisartutlov om Sprogpolitik has defined the Greenlandic language as comprising dialects spoken in North, East, and West Greenland. As the main language spoken in Nuuk, West Greenlandic is one of the few Arctic Indigenous languages which is not endangered and has managed to be adapted to modern vocabulary through the work of Oqaasileriffik, the Language Secretariat of Greenland. Protecting the Greenlandic language has also been used as a tool of devolution, but conversely, the Greenlandic language is only protected through the autonomy granted to Greenland through the Self-Government Act, as there are no Danish laws protecting Greenlandic speakers’ rights to use their language elsewhere in the Kingdom of Denmark.